Annotated Bibliographies
Protected Islands, Bird Habitats, and Lowcountry Ecology
by Jacob Kome, 02.09.2026
This annotated bibliography 🤓 is meant to support ongoing research on the bird islands of coastal South Carolina, specifically focusing on nature-based solutions, as well as ecological and economic sustainability. The compiled sources focus on shorebird conservation, but also include sources about biological survey techniques, geological studies, and economic reports, among other relevant subjects for bird island habitat protection and restoration.GENERAL ECOLOGY
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Sanders, F. J., Handmaker, M. C., Johnson, A. S., & Senner, N. R. (2021). Nocturnal Roost on SC coast supports nearly half of Atlantic coast population of Hudsonian whimbrel Numenius hudsonicus during northward migration. Wader Study, 128(2).
Key Ideas: Hudsonian Whimbrel, Deveaux Bank
This paper discusses the discovery of Deveaux Bank as a nocturnal roosting sight for upwards of 20,000 whimbrels, a shorebird whose population has seen a sharp decline over the past few decades.
One of the main points in this study is that it appears that there are a limited number of suitable sites for nocturnal roosting on the coast of South Carolina and Georgia, which are one of two key staging sites for whimbrel in their long distance/transnational migration. The importance of creating a network of suitable sites is emphasized, especially since Deveaux Bank is an ephemeral island, forming and disappearing over the decades with the secretion and erosion of sand from the Edisto River and Atlantic coast. There is also a discussion of survey methods and best practices for ornithological study, as well as a discussion of the importance of finding more nocturnal roosting sights so they can be better studied, understood, and protected. Specifically useful for emphasizing the importance of our local bird sanctuary islands as crucial to the survival of many different species of shorebird, with whimbrel as the specific example used here. -
Eggert, L.M.F., Jodice, P.G.R., & O’Reilly, K. M. (2010). Stress response of brown pelican nestlings to ectoparasite infestation. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 166(1), 33–38.
Key Ideas: Brown Pelican, Cape Romain NWR, Deveaux, Marsh Island
This article has a limited scope, but generalizable insights. It focuses mainly on the corticosterone (stress response) levels in brown pelican nestlings, particularly in response to ectoparasites (parasites that stay on the outside of the body). Although highly specific in terms of analysis, this article is a good place to start when looking for differences between nesting sites along the coast, as there are significant differences in resting stress levels between the two studied sites, which could help researchers in finding what makes certain sites better than others. -
Tweel, A.W., D.M. Sanger, M.K. Chaplin. Guide to piping plover foraging habitats in South Carolina: Geological, environmental, and prey availability factors contributing to habitat utilization. South Carolina Department of Natural Resources Marine Resources Division. Charleston, SC. Technical Report No. 113. 17 p.
Key Ideas: Piping Plove, Habitat ID
This guide helps identify different habitats that piping plovers use. It quantifies their quality and possible use for this species of bird. It goes into great detail about the various coastal habitats that piping plovers are found foraging in and gives clear, picture examples of each type of habitat, as well as easy-to-read charts that give brief descriptions of the characteristics of each. While the document is focused just on the Piping Plover, it could be used as a reference or template for similar documents for other types of shorebirds of interest, as well as giving a general idea of what kinds of habitats need immediate conservation attention vs those that are more abundant and of less immediate intervention. -
Wallover, N. J., Martin, M.-C., & Sanders, F. J. (n.d.). Monthly abundance and seasonal spatial distribution of Shorebirds in Cape Romain National Wildlife Refuge, South Carolina. whsrn.org.
Key Ideas: Cape Romain NWR, Bird Populations and Abundances
This document contains general shore bird survey data from 2007 to 2010 for the Cape Romain National Wildlife Refuge. It focuses on listing total and species-specific bird populations and abundances seen during the survey period and describing the habitat and location of said surveys. It briefly discusses methods used and suggests some possible protections for critical shorebird habitat in the CRNWR. It also calls for more shorebird population and abundance surveys to be performed and suggests where it could be beneficial to do so. This is a useful document for understanding what bird populations and abundances were like in the late 2000s and could be a good resource for comparison to see if shorebird populations are still declining or if they have stabilized or even begun to recover. -
Weber, L. M., & Haig, S. M. (1996). Shorebird Use of South Carolina Managed and Natural Coastal Wetlands. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 60(1), 73–82.
Key Ideas: Bird Migration, Managed Wetlands, Supplemental Habitats, Pre-2000s
This article explains that, alongside natural mudflats and wetlands, managed, diked wetlands also have an important conservation role, particularly for shorebirds. It contends that managed wetlands provide protective habitat during high winds and serve as a great supplemental feeding habitat for some shorebirds, even being preferred by some species depending on the tide and time of year. It emphasizes that more managed wetlands should not necessarily be created, but that current managed wetlands should change their flooding schedules to accommodate both shorebirds and waterfowl, rather than just waterfowl. This article is from the mid-1990s, but it still serves as a good example of how shorebird conservation should include more than “pristine” locales. -
Suthar, A. R., Biggs, A. R., & Anderson, J. T. (2025). A Decadal Change in Shorebird Populations in Response to Temperature, Wind, and Precipitation at Hilton Head Island, South Carolina, USA. Birds, 6(1), 14.
Key ideas: Hilton Head, Shorebirds, Population Trends, Climate
This study focuses on the population trends of shorebirds, specifically in relation to climate factors, from 2014-2024, mainly looking at 12 species consistently observed over that decade. The paper finds statistically significant declines in population for 3 of the bird species (Black bellied Plover, Marbled Godwit, and Willet), while statistically significant increases in population for 2 of the birds (Semipalmated Plover and Piping Plover), and non-significant trends for the remaining 7 species, which had a mix of increasing and decreasing.
When this data was compared to climate data, specifically temperature, precipitation, and windspeed, statistically significant correlations were found between trends in the bird population and these specific climate factors. The authors argue that“the strong relationships between meteorological variables and species counts underscore the sensitivity of shorebirds to environmental fluctuations.” Overall, this paper highlights some very important variables to consider in shorebird conservation, as well as giving ideas on how to better maintain habitats on conserved lands to account for changing climate. -
Coastal birds in South Carolina - seabird sanctuaries. SCDNR - Coastal Birds in South Carolina - Seabird Sanctuaries. (n.d.). https://www.dnr.sc.gov/wildlife/species/coastalbirds/seabirds/sanctuaries.html
Key ideas: SCDNR, all seabird sanctuaries in SC
This site and video serves as a great overview of the what and why of seabird sanctuaries. It does an excellent job of informing what birds use them, what islands are considered sanctuaries, and what some of the rules around these sanctuaries are. This is a great starting point for anyone who is curious about the meaning and value of a “bird sanctuary.”
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Jodice, P. G., Murphy, T. M., Sanders, F. J., & Ferguson, L. M. (2007). Longterm trends in nest counts of colonial seabirds in South Carolina, USA. Waterbirds, 30(1), 40–51. https://doi.org/10.1675/1524-4695(2007)030[0040:ltinco]2.0.co;2
Key ideas: Brown Pelicans, Royal Terns, Sandwich Terns, 1969-2005, nesting trends
This paper examines the long term trends in the populations of 3 of South Carolina's most common shorebirds, doing so mostly through historical records and yearly studies done by other agencies. They found a positive correlation between Royal Tern and Brown Pelican nests, as they are often found nesting near each other. No such correlations were found with Sandwich Terns. In terms of populations, this paper found that Royal Terns and Brown Pelicans saw a steady decline in population, while Sandwich Terns saw a steady increase. While not explaining these trends, the paper offers several hypotheses for why this is, providing possible directions for future research. Overall, this is a very helpful paper for our purposes, but it would be nice to see a similar paper examining the trends seen in the past 20 years since this paper. This article is very detailed, although short, and has great suggestions for future research as well as potential conservation strategies that could be implemented.
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Pelton, M. M., Padula, S. R., Garcia-Walther, J., Andrews, M., Mercer, R., Porter, R., Sanders, F., Thibault, J., Senner, N. R., & Linscott, J. A. (2022). Kiawah and Seabrook Islands are a critical site for the Rufa Red Knot. Wader Study, 129(2). https://doi.org/10.18194/ws.00277
Key ideas: Red knot, Kiawah, Seabrook
This study uses a combination of direct count and geolocator data to analyze the importance of Seabrook and Kiawah Islands to the red knot. Their total count estimates line up with those of recent studies involving whimbrels on Deveaux Bank, possibly indicating other sites of extreme importance to long distance migratory shorebirds in South Carolina. This article emphasizes the importance of South Carolina to red knot migration, serving as evidence for needed conservation measures for not only sea bird sanctuary islands, but also on islands with high human presence.
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Blanchard, A. (2025). Creation and Implementation of an Intensive Marsh Monitoring Protocol for Developed Marshlands in the State of South Carolina: A Case Study for Kiawah Island (Order No. 31994722). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (3215842764). https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/creation-implementation-intensive-marsh/docview/3215842764/se-2
Key ideas: Dissertation/thesis, marsh surveying, marsh protocol, developed marshland
This thesis takes existing and recommended marsh research and monitoring methodologies, which have previously been used mainly on rural marsh areas, and tests their effectiveness on developmentally impacted marshland. In addition, the study added geospatial and remote sensing protocols and found them to increase effectiveness and heighten understanding of the studied marshland health. This thesis provides highly effective protocols to use when marshland health needs to be assessed. Due to this ecosystem’s importance to shorebirds, this could be very important for future research.
This annotated bibliography 🤓 is meant to support ongoing research on the bird islands of coastal South Carolina, specifically focusing on nature-based solutions, as well as ecological and economic sustainability. The compiled sources focus on shorebird conservation, but also include sources about biological survey techniques, geological studies, and economic reports, among other relevant subjects for bird island habitat protection and restoration.
ENGINEERING/GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS
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Gray, A. D., Wertz, H., Leads, R. R., & Weinstein, J. E. (2018a). Microplastic in two South Carolina estuaries: Occurrence, distribution, and composition. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 128, 223–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.01.030
Key ideas: Charleston Harbor, Winyah Bay, sediments, microplastics
This paper serves as a comprehensive baseline study of the abundance and prevalence of microplastics in two of South Carolina’s estuaries, the Charleston Harbor and Winyah Bay. Both were found to have surface sediment and seawater microlayer concentrations of microplastics that were in line with other, similar studies. Unique to this study, however, was the prevalence of what the authors suggest are tire wear particles, which previous studies have not found in nearly the abundance that this study did. This article could serve as a template from which to perform similar tests on the bird islands, possibly to get a baseline of the microplastic contamination.
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Li, H., Wang, C., Cui, Y., & Hodgson, M. (2021). Mapping salt marsh along coastal South Carolina using U-Net. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 179, 121–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2021.07.011
Key ideas: Salt Marsh Mapping, deep learning
This paper discusses a new training method for mapping and distinguishing high marsh and low marsh, statewide. Mapping could serve as a way to monitor bird islands less invasively, as well as allowing long term monitoring, which is especially helpful due to the ephemeral nature of the islands. This paper, while discussing their new training model for mapping salt marshes, could serve as a model for a mapping method to study bird island sanctuaries.
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Crab Bank Research. Audubon South Carolina. (2024, August 23). https://sc.audubon.org/conservation/crab-bank-research
Key ideas: Multiple papers, Crab Bank
This website contains three different papers, all related to the newly restored Crab Bank. It both summarizes and contains downloadable links for all 3 papers, all of which are related to either the physical or economic side of the island’s renewal. This site provides sources that could all be applied in very similar ways to the other bird islands of interest, providing a clear template that could be replicated, specifically to inform policy makers and regulators.
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Martin, D., Bertasi, F., Colangelo, M. A., de Vries, M., Frost, M., Hawkins, S. J., Macpherson, E., Moschella, P. S., Satta, M. P., Thompson, R. C., & Ceccherelli, V. U. (2005). Ecological impact of coastal defence structures on sediment and mobile fauna: Evaluating and forecasting consequences of unavoidable modifications of native habitats. Coastal Engineering, 52(10–11), 1027–1051. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coastaleng.2005.09.006
Key ideas: Europe, sediment, benthic fauna
This European-based study looked into the effects that “low-crested structures” (shoreline defense structures like groins) had on sediment makeup and, in turn, the effects on benthic and mobile fauna compositions. While not based in our particular region, their findings were consistent across multiple different sites in multiple different countries, suggesting a validity to their findings that likely would apply across the Atlantic as well. The results of the study provide information for consideration when constructing new LCS as well as insights into the possible 17
impacts of existing LCS. This study provides useful information on the possible impacts of certain human constructions, or “hard infrastructure,” on shorelines while also providing suggestions on how to minimize these impacts. The information it provides would be very helpful when considering the conservation impacts of beach reinforcement and sea-level rise adaptation in the Carolina Lowcountry.
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Barrineau, Patrick. (2025). Assessment for Habitat Restoration on Deveaux Bank, SC. 10.13140/RG.2.2.19401.04962.
Key ideas: Deveaux Bank, full island assessment
This report details the current physical condition of Deveaux Bank, helps to determine the feasibility of restoration projects for the island, and contains “historical data and sediment transport patterns across the entire North Edisto inlet ebb tidal delta.” This assessment contains vital information, predicting physical and spatial changes that could take place with the island over the next few years. Overall, this is a key document for engineering considerations in relation to bird island habitat.
Shorebird Migratory Routes and Assisted Migration Efforts Across the Americas
by Angelina Arcidi & Aidan Hylen, 02.09.2026
The document serves as a directory and operational archive of select nonprofits and state agencies that support shorebird migration and conservation efforts along the Atlantic Flyway. By documenting collaborative efforts across the Americas, this record provides crucial information necessary for advancing migratory research and restoration. Spanning from Canada, down the U.S. Eastern Seaboard, through the Caribbean and South America, it provides essential information on key stopover sites for species including Redknots, Whimbrels, Piping Plovers, and Black Skimmers.TRANSNATIONAL ORGS.
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“Manomet uses science and collaboration to strengthen bird migration routes, coastal ecosystems, and working lands and seas across the Western Hemisphere. For over 55 years, we have formed vital partnerships with businesses, producers, and educators, to help nature and local communities thrive.”
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“Development of the Atlantic Flyway Shorebird Initiative culminated a multi-year effort involving multiple partners along the entire Atlantic Flyway – from Alaska to Argentina – to address declines in shorebirds. The Initiative grew to embrace a full-lifecycle Atlantic Flyway Shorebird Business Plan published in February 2015. This landmark Business Plan represents the full suite of strategies and actions needed to conserve 15 Atlantic Flyway shorebirds.”
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“WHSRN’s mission is to conserve shorebirds and their habitats across the Americas through action at a network of key sites.”
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“For 120 years and counting, the National Audubon Society has preserved bird habitats, conducted scientific research, influenced policymakers to enact commonsense conservation laws, and engaged communities across the hemisphere to protect the natural resources upon which birds—and we—depend. By ‘bending the bird curve,’ we are working to halt, and ultimately reverse, the decline of birds across the Americas.”
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“We carry out conservation rooted in regional knowledge, working alongside Indigenous Peoples and local communities to create sustainable change. We’re made up of 124 worldwide conservation organizations, and together we’re the global authority on birds.”
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“We’re a diverse, global network of empowered professionals, working together to advance the scientific study and conservation of birds. The world’s largest international ornithological society, the AOS is more relevant today than ever, and we’re dedicated to supporting the scientists doing this critical work—for the sake of birds, humanity, and the planet.”
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“Founded in the U.S. through grassroots action in 1951, The Nature Conservancy (TNC) has grown to become one of the most effective and wide-reaching environmental organizations in the world. Thanks to more than a million members and the dedicated efforts of our diverse staff and over 1,000 scientists, we impact conservation in 83 countries and territories: 39 by direct conservation impact and 44 through partners.”
SOUTH CAROLINA
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“South Carolina is home to many coastal bird species, including seabirds and shorebirds. Our state plays a vital role in the lives of these species, from providing nesting and feeding habitats, to migration of stopovers and wintering grounds. South Carolina DNR protects areas where these birds roost, nest, feed, and raise their young. At the SCDNR coastal bird program, we monitor population trends, protect nesting and feeding areas, manage and enhance habitat, and conduct research to help coastal bird populations in South Carolina.”
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“The South Carolina Shorebird Project (SCSP) unites organizations, entities, and people supporting shorebirds and seabirds populations in the Palmetto state. Through volunteerism, research, advocacy, education, and conservation, SCSP is a collaborative partnership that strives to make South Carolina a safe place for all our coastal birds.”
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“Audubon South Carolina protects birds and the places they need, today and tomorrow, using science, advocacy, education, and on-the-ground conservation. As the state office of the National Audubon Society, we represent nearly 30,000 members and supporters, 10 chapters and bird club partners, two nature sanctuaries, one conservation action center, and more than 30,000 acres of bird and climate-friendly managed habitat across the Palmetto State.”
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“For over thirty years, we’ve paddled the blackwater creeks, followed the tides through salt marshes, and explored the wild edges of South Carolina’s Lowcountry. Along the way, we’ve witnessed rapid changes – shrinking shorelines, disappearing nesting habitat, and pressure on the wildlife that calls this place home. We’ve learned that the most powerful way to inspire action is through meaningful, firsthand experiences in nature. The Coastal Expeditions Foundation was born from that belief. As the nonprofit arm of Coastal Expeditions, it allows us to go further – supporting critical conservation work like loggerhead sea turtle protection and investing in environmental education for the next generation. Our mission is simple: to keep the Lowcountry wild through habitat preservation, public access to nature, and immersive education.”
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“In 2017, interest in the diminishing Crab Bank, a dedicated Heritage Trust Property and a Seabird Sanctuary managed and owned by the S.C. Department of Natural Resources (SCDNR), brought together various conservation-minded organizations to form the Coastal Bird Conservation Program. This program established a means for SCDNR and supporting organizations to collect donations to support the renourishment of Crab Bank and future coastal bird conservation efforts.”
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“With so many migrating species, it is imperative that we work together to protect bird habitats along their routes. Our programs aim to protect and enhance bird habitat and train people of all ages to help biologists track bird populations through citizen science initiatives.”
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“[The] Cape Romain National Wildlife Refuge, extending 22 miles along the South Carolina Coast, is a rich mosaic of barrier islands with forest and ponds, vast salt marshes and intricate waterways. This diverse and dynamic system supports over 293 bird species and a myriad of other wildlife. Over fifty percent of refuge lands are designated a Class I National Wilderness Area.”
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“Lowcountry Land Trust serves as a partner and resource to South Carolina landowners to create a lasting, positive impact. The largest local land trust in South Carolina, Lowcountry Land Trust, holds more conservation easements and acreage than any organization in the state . . . South Carolina has some of the most bio-diverse ecosystems outside of the Amazon that provide essential environmental services. By protecting the land with conservation easements, we maintain nature’s shield from weather events, including flooding, storms, and hurricanes.”
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“We work to protect the health of the natural resources of the South Carolina coastal plain and ensure a high quality of life for all of the people who live in and love this special place. From sandy beaches, healthy marshes, freshwater swamps to pine savannas, we protect natural habitats and the wildlife that depends on them.”
Green Tax and Conservation Finance for Coastal Bird Habitat Protection
by Jared Halbrook, 01.31.2026
This annotated bibliography was prepared to support ongoing research examining the role of
green taxation and conservation finance mechanisms in funding coastal bird habitat protection and nature-based solutions. The compiled sources focus on environmental tax policy, green finance and banking mechanisms, coastal resilience economics, and bird habitat conservation, with relevance to barrier island and bird bank systems along the South Carolina coast.Sources include peer-reviewed literature, policy analyses, case studies, government and organizational reports that collectively inform the financial and socioeconomic dimensions of
coastal bird habitat conservation.FOUNDATIONS OF GREEN TAXATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
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World Bank. (n.d.). Environmental Taxes. World Bank Global Tax Program.
https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/the-global-tax-program/environmental-taxes
“Environmental taxation can contribute to multiple Sustainable Developing Goals (SDGs). Environmental tax reforms can have multiple co-benefits beyond climate (Heine and Black, 2019). For example, the reduction in fossil fuel consumption induced by excise taxes on fuels or carbon reduces local air pollution, contributing to SDG3 (Good Health and Well-Being and SDG15 on Life and Land). Similarly, there is evidence of the effectiveness of gasoline taxes in controlling the growth of motor transport, reducing road congestion and road accidents; thus, supporting SDG11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities). There is increasing evidence, too, that environmental taxes can raise revenue at lower costs to the economy than some conventional taxes. For example, using taxes on carbon and fuel instead of payroll taxes can reduce the shadow economy and support formal employment, influencing SDG8 (Decent work and Economic Growth).” This source highlights the positive contributions that environmental taxation can have on multiple goals, breaking this down into segments.
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OECD. (n.d.). Finance and Investment for Environmental Goals. OECD.
https://www.oecd.org/en/topics/policy-issues/finance-and-investment-for-environmental-goals.html
“SMEs are critical actors in the green transition given their significant cumulative environmental footprint and their provision of green solutions to the market. However, many smaller firms continue to lag behind their larger counterparts in adopting greener practices and business models due to a range of supply and demand-side factors, including limited access to finance, skills and other resources, as well as regulatory and policy uncertainty. As governments, public actors and other stakeholders seek to devise effective packages of financial and non-financial support to spur SME action, the OECD has been working on analyzing and identifying innovative financial instruments and approaches across countries that can accelerate SME greening and their contribution to global progress toward sustainability.” This article highlights the finance and investment for environmental goals, uncovering a new lens to sustainable development.
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World Bank. (2025). Innovative Approaches for a Clean, Blue and Green Planet: Harnessing Nature Analytics and Finance. World Bank.
“In the realm of investing in and mobilizing finance for nature, the WBG is one of the leading financiers of nature globally. In FY24, the World Bank’s active portfolio included $4 billion of direct investments in biodiversity and ecosystem services. This portfolio integrates nature considerations into economic policy, development programs, and strategic sectoral investments in nearly 60 countries, supporting the implementation of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. To mobilize finance, particularly private capital, the WBG utilizes tailored financial instruments, such as thematic bonds, outcome bonds, sustainability-linked loans, and political/credit risk guarantees to unlock financing by tapping into capital markets, harnessing result-based financing tools, and de-risking private capital investments.” This article emphasizes innovative approaches to implement environmental incentives into practice, going into economic policy & programs.
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IMF. (2019). Fiscal policies for Paris climate strategies—From principle to practice.
“On the mitigation side, the paper presents a spreadsheet tool for judging the likely impact on emissions, fiscal revenues, local air pollution mortality, and economic welfare impacts of a range of instruments including comprehensive carbon taxes, emissions trading systems, taxes on individual fuels, and incentives for energy efficiency. It analyses possible uses of the revenue from such instruments to, for example, lower the burden on the economy from taxes on labor and capital, or to fund investments for Sustainable Development Goals, as well as the possible distributional impact. The paper also discusses the cases for voluntary carbon price floor arrangements at the regional level, or among large-emitting countries, to reinforce domestic initiatives and help address concerns about competitiveness without resorting to trade penalties on other countries.”
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OECD. (2021). Tax policy for sustainable development.
https://www.oecd.org/tax/tax-policy/tax-policy-for-sustainable-development.pdf
“The first objective of taxation is to raise revenue. Total tax revenues a share of GDP in OECD countries range from 18% to 45%. On average, around ½ of these revenues is from a combination of personal income taxes and social security contributions, 20% from VAT, around 10% from corporate income taxes and other consumption taxes each, and 5% from property taxes. In non-OECD economies, the tax revenue-to-GDP ratio is lower on average than in OECD countries and the share of indirect tax revenues higher. Differences in tax levels and structures reflect a range of political choices and administrative capabilities and they have a major impact on economic and social outcomes. High-quality data on tax revenues is essential for countries’ fiscal policy and international co-operation on tax.” This paper highlights the tax policy for sustainable development, understanding instruments & capabilities.
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UNEP. (2025). Governments adopt first global strategy to finance biodiversity: Implications for financial institutions.
“The newly adopted strategy provides a framework to mobilize finance through a range of mechanisms, including public funding from national and subnational governments, private sector contributions, philanthropic resources, multilateral development banks, and blended finance approaches. Importantly, it emphasizes the inclusion of indigenous peoples, local communities, women, and youth in decision-making processes while aligning with the three Rio Conventions to enhance synergies in global environmental governance.” This source highlights the environmental finance, specifically implications on an institutional level.
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European Commission. (2021). Environmental taxation and green fiscal reform.
https://taxation-customs.ec.europa.eu/taxation/other-taxes/green-taxation_en
“Environmental or green taxes include taxes on energy, transport, pollution and resources. Energy taxes are taxes on energy products and electricity used for transport, such as petrol and diesel, and for other purposes, such as fuel oils, natural gas, coal and electricity used in heating.”
This source highlights environmental taxation and green fiscal reform, providing information on energy products.
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Parry, I., Heine, D., Lis, E., & Li, S. (2014). Getting energy prices right. IMF.
https://www.imf.org/external/np/fad/environ/pdf/c1.pdf
“This book is about getting energy prices right. The principle that fiscal instruments must be center stage in “correcting” the major environmental side effects of energy use is well established. This volume aims to help put this principle into practice by setting out a practicable methodology and associated tools for determining the right price. The book provides estimates, data permitting, for 156 countries of the taxes on coal, natural gas, gasoline, and diesel needed to reflect environmental costs. Underpinning the policy recommendations is the notion that taxation (or tax-like instruments) can influence behavior, in much the same way that taxes on cigarettes discourage their overuse, appropriate taxes can discourage overuse of environmentally harmful energy sources.” This source highlights energy prices, including policy information on a macroeconomic scale.
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World Economic Forum. (2020). Nature Risk Rising: Why the Crisis Engulfing Nature Matters for Business and the Economy
https://www.weforum.org/publications/nature-risk-rising-why-the-crisis-engulfing-nature-matters-for-business-and-the-economy/
“The World Economic Forum’s 2020 Global Risks Report ranks biodiversity loss and ecosystem collapse as one of the top five threats humanity will face in the next ten years. Human societies and economies rely on biodiversity in fundamental ways. Our research shows that $44 trillion of economic value generation – over half the world’s total GDP – is moderately or highly dependent on nature and its services. Nature loss matters for most businesses – through impacts on operations, supply chains, and markets.” This article highlights why the crisis is of concern, and what we can do to protect these environments.
SOUTH CAROLINA
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OECD. (2025). Scaling Up Biodiversity-Positive Incentives - Tax instruments and policy design.
https://doi.org/10.1787/19b859ce-en
“To halt and reverse nature loss, economic incentives must swiftly be aligned with global biodiversity goals. This OECD report provides strategic guidance on scaling up biodiversity-positive incentives – policy instruments that reward environmentally beneficial actions and make harmful ones more costly. It examines an array of economic incentives for biodiversity, including subsidies, payments for ecosystem services, environmental taxes, fees and tradable permits, biodiversity offsets, and emerging biodiversity credit approaches. Drawing on experiencesworldwide, the report highlights key challenges and opportunities for scaling up these incentives effectively and equitably. It offers policy makers and practitioners ten recommendations to support the implementation of Target 18 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework”
This article highlights the biodiversity incentives, including tax instruments and policy design.
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World Bank. (n.d.). Environmental Taxes — includes tools for policy design like CPAT.
https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/the-global-tax-program/environmental-taxes
“Environmental taxation can contribute to multiple Sustainable Developing Goals (SDGs). Environmental tax reforms can have multiple co-benefits beyond climate (Heine and Black, 2019). For example, the reduction in fossil fuel consumption induced by excise taxes on fuels or carbon reduces local air pollution, contributing to SDG3 (Good Health and Well-Being and SDG15 on Life and Land). Similarly, there is evidence of the effectiveness of gasoline taxes in controlling the growth of motor transport, reducing road congestion and road accidents; thus, supporting SDG11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities). There is increasing evidence, too, that environmental taxes can raise revenue at lower costs to the economy than some conventional taxes. For example, using taxes on carbon and fuel instead of payroll taxes can reduce the shadow economy and support formal employment, influencing SDG8 (Decent work and Economic Growth).”
This article highlights environmental taxation, specifically tools for policy design.
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OECD (2023), Scaling Up the Mobilisation of Private Finance for Climate Action in Developing Countries: Challenges and Opportunities for International Providers, Green Finance and Investment, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/17a88681-en.
“A wide range of policy levers often need to be deployed in order to create the conditions required for commercial investment. Investment policy may need to be recalibrated to ensure transparency, protection of property rights, and non-discrimination. This can be combined with proactive investment promotion and facilitation, for example through incentives to correct market failures (OECD, 2015[15]). Reforms across competition policy, financial market policy, sustainable finance, public governance, and the fiscal regime may also be required to facilitate investments in climate action. In addition to fossil fuel subsidies, other taxes, including corporate income and property taxes may be designed in a way that encourages carbon intensive activity (OECD et al., 2015[16]), thereby distorting markets and creating disincentives to investment in climate action.”
This article highlights information on policy and private finance, emphasizing sustainable development incentives and funding providers internationally.
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Parry, M., et al. (2021). Climate Policy Assessment Tool (CPAT) — foundation for analyzing tax instruments (World Bank/IMF)
https://www.imf.org/media/files/publications/wp/2023/english/wpiea2023128-print-pdf.pdf
“Large gaps in environmental taxation persist globally. In 2022 governments spent a record USD 1 trillion, or 1% of global GDP on fossil fuel subsidies and tax expenditures. Furthermore, when accounting for implicit subsidies (i.e., when the retail price fails to include external costs), the IMF estimates that the tax gap represents 6.8 percent of GDP in the average country (Parry et al., 2021). While 23% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are now covered by 68 explicit carbon pricing instruments, most carbon prices remain inefficiently low (World Bank, 2022). 60% of carbon emissions from energy use in 44 OECD and G20 countries are neither covered by fuel taxes nor by carbon pricing instruments (OECD, 2021). However, not only do direct carbon prices remain below their desired range to internalize the social costs of carbon but also global fossil fuel subsidies continue to place a negative indirect price on carbon emissions (World Bank, forthcoming) and are far from decreasing.”
This article highlights the climate policy assessment tool from World Bank, highlighting the tax instruments.
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OECD. (2020). Environmentally related taxes in OECD countries.
https://www.oecd.org/environment/tools-evaluation/environmentally-related-taxes.htm
“Environmental policies can help galvanise the green transition. However, they must be carefully implemented to avoid negative repercussions for the environment, local communities and the economy. OECD analysis and evaluation guides countries on appropriate policy choices and mixes to ensure their economic efficiency and environmental effectiveness.”
This article highlights environmentally related taxes in OECD countries.
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World Bank. (2017). Carbon tax guide: A handbook for policymakers.
https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/26300
“The resurgence in interest in carbon taxes has come as over three-quarters of the world’s nations have developed Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement and are increasingly looking for cost-effective ways to turn these goals into actions. It has also developed alongside a gradual shift toward taxes on goods and services, with many jurisdictions seeking to use the tax system to achieve greater economic efficiency and to pursue a range of policy goals beyond raising revenue.” The article highlights Carbon tax, providing an overview to policy makers.
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Metcalf, G. (2019). On the economics of a carbon tax for the United States.
https://www.brookings.edu/articles/on-the-economics-of-a-carbon-tax-for-the-united-states/
“Climate change is driven by a build-up of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere, predominantly the result of the world’s consumption of fossil fuels. GHGs are a global pollution externality for which a global solution is required. I describe the role a domestic carbon tax could play in reducing U.S. emissions and compare to alternative approaches to reducing our GHG pollution. Carbon taxes have been implemented in twenty-seven jurisdictions around the world. I provide evidence on emission reductions and economic impacts of the British Columbia carbon tax, a broad-based carbon tax that has been in effect for over a decade now.”
This article highlights the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, focusing on the economics of carbon tax for the United States.
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OECD. (2019). Biodiversity offsets and taxes.
https://www.oecd.org/environment/resources/biodiversity-offsets-and-taxes.pdf
“All life on Earth depends on biodiversity and water. Yet these invaluable natural resources are under increasing threat from multiple pressures caused by human activities. OECD analysis on biodiversity, covering both species and ecosystems, and water supports governments in developing policies that yield greater environmental benefits in a cost‑effective and inclusive way.”
This article provides perspective on offsets and taxes, emphasizing the cost-effective benefits.
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“We work to protect the health of the natural resources of the South Carolina coastal plain and ensure a high quality of life for all of the people who live in and love this special place. From sandy beaches, healthy marshes, freshwater swamps to pine savannas, we protect natural habitats and the wildlife that depends on them.”